The Hague 2025

Young Visions of Peace and Security

SEDE III

Committee on Security and Defence III

War on words: The period since October 2023 has been dubbed ‘the most deadly period for journalists since records began’ in 1992. Alongside this, the International and European Federation of Journalists has spoken out against increasing restrictions of press freedom across Europe, such as the unlawful deployment of spyware against journalists, and the use of lawsuits (SLAPPs) to hamper investigative work. What safeguards should the EU implement to protect press freedom and safeguard journalists in conflict zones?
Heleen Vanagt (BE)

Executive Summary

From illegal deployment of spyware to the abusive use of strategic lawsuits against public participation (SLAPPs), from censorship from politicians or sponsors to targeted killings, the current situation for journalists is dire. A record number of journalists have been killed over the past year and a half1 in direct violation with the Geneva Convention and the chance of the cases being brought to justice is at 85%.2 Over 500 journalists are currently in prison across the world, with over a fifth of those in European prisons.3 Journalists are also legal targets as over 150 SLAPPs are recorded in Europe annually.4 European governments are bypassing legislation to illegally deploy spyware against journalists.5 (Linguistic) censorship is currently waging a narrative war in the media, which adds to the justification/legitimisation of the perpetrations of atrocities, including genocide.6 Despite legal frameworks on national, European, and international levels, it is clear that urgent and effective action is necessary to improve the climate for journalism and press freedom.

Table Of Contents
  1. Committee on Security and Defence III
  2. Executive Summary
  3. Introduction
  4. Key Stakeholders
  5. Fundamental Challenges
  6. Measures in place
  7. Outlook

If you prefer to read or print this Topic Overview as a static PDF document, you can download it here.

SEDE IIIDownload

Introduction

Every four days, a journalist is killed somewhere in the world, with 2025 counting 5 dead before mid-January.7 Over the past two decades, more than 1,700 journalists have been killed.8 Additionally, a total of 550 journalists were detained in 2024, with China, Myanmar, Israel, Belarus, and Russia being the five largest prisons for journalists.9 53 journalists have currently been held hostage for over a year, and 91 journalists have been missing for over a year.10 These numbers are just the tip of the iceberg concerning the current landscape of hostility towards journalists and journalism.

ROUND-UP REPORT OF Reporters Without Borders (RSF)
Journalists killed, detained, held hostage, and missing in 2024
Read more

Since the beginning of the Genocide in Palestine,11 we have been experiencing the deadliest period for journalists since the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) began gathering data.12 Last February, United Nations (UN) experts stated that they were “alarmed at the extraordinarily high numbers of journalists and media workers who have been killed, attacked, injured and detained in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, particularly in Gaza, in recent months blatantly disregarding international law”.13 Additionally, European media freedom is dangerously “close to a breaking point”.14 Action is urgently required to protect journalists and journalism on all fronts.

Key Stakeholders

The Council of Europe (CoE) launched the Safety of Journalists Platform in 2022 to promote the protection and safety of journalists by monitoring the state of press freedom in all of its Member States. They publish an annual report of the state of journalism across the continent, which helps governments on a local, national, and European level understand the gaps in legislation and urgency of the situation.

Similarly, the European Commission funds Mapping Media Freedom, which documents press and media freedom violations across the continent. The project allows for any member of the public to access all the documented incidents through an interactive tool. 

The Directorate-General for European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (DG ECHO) is the Commission’s department responsible for EU responses to crises and disasters across the world, by providing humanitarian assistance and civil protection support. They are responsible for upholding humanitarian law and safeguarding journalists in the EU and beyond.

The European Court of Human Rights interprets the European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR) in the 46 Member States of the CoE. It is the Court’s responsibility to protect journalists by ensuring protection in the information-gathering process, of confidential sources, against searches of professional workplaces or private domiciles, against the seizure of materials, and of editorial autonomy.15

Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) are also active in the fight for journalistic freedom. The Coalition Against SLAPPs in Europe (CASE) aims to expose SLAPPs and those who use them, build resilience against SLAPPs, and to advocate for reform for stronger safeguards. The Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) documents obstructions to a free press worldwide, advises on diplomatic efforts, and offers support to journalists. The International Federation of Journalists (IFJ) works on supporting unions, promoting international action, fighting to end the use of media as propaganda, and launching campaigns. Reporters Without Borders (RSF) focusses on field interventions and advocacy, as well as the annual publication of the World Press Freedom Index. The International Press Institute (IPI) advocates with governments, raises awareness, and establishes programmes and campaigns.

Lastly, the International Criminal Court (ICC) investigates and tries individuals charged with genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. The ICC has dedicated itself to fighting impunity by holding those who have no one to answer to accountable.

Fundamental Challenges

Journalists are currently going through the deadliest period for their profession since the CPJ began gathering data in 1992,16 in large due to the genocide Israel is committing in Palestine. At least 202 journalists have been killed in Palestine since October 2023.17 The CPJ has confirmed that at least 11 of those murdered were deliberately targeted,18 while RSF confirms that 41 were targeted attacks,19 despite journalists being protected under the Geneva Convention and the deliberate targeting of a journalist constituting a war crime.20 Sadly, over 90% of murders of journalists remain unsolved21 and 85% remain unpunished.22 Israel and Haiti, rank the worst in terms of holding the murderers of journalists accountable.23 To tackle the extensive killing of journalists, RSF has filed four complaints with the ICC for war crimes against journalists.24 They also cited the deliberate, partial or total, destruction of over 50 media outlets in Gaza.25 The ICC’s prosecutor’s office assured RSF that crimes against journalists are included in their investigation into Palestine,26 yet no case filed since 2018 regarding the deliberate targeting of journalists in Palestine has seen the perpetrators being brought to justice.27 To tackle the impunity regarding journalists killed, Member States could join ICC court cases and exert diplomatic pressure.

Outside of Israel, 51 journalist’s deaths were recorded in 2024, of which 4 in Ukraine.28 Additionally a sharp increase in the imprisonment of journalists was documented: from 375 in 2022 and 427 in 2023 to 516 in 2024.29 Six countries in Europe, Belarus (44), Azerbaijan (33), Russia (29), Ukraine (28), Turkey (26), and Georgia (3), are responsible for holding all 161 European journalists imprisoned.30 European journalists are protected under the ECHR and cases regarding imprisonment and impunity can be brought forward with the European Court of Human Rights.31 In 2023, only 13 press freedom violations were ‘resolved’ by the end of the year, indicating a lack of accountability and response on Member States’ part.32

Censorship is another threat to media freedom. Israeli authorities continue to restrict access into Gaza for foreign journalists33 while RSF has called for access for international journalists to the besieged territory since the 15th of January ceasefire.34 The far-right government has additionally used the genocide increase media censorship by arresting Palestinian journalists in the West Bank,35 repressing Israeli media, and intimidating Israeli journalists critical of their government.36 Censorship regarding the Palestinian Genocide has taken place on the linguistic level as well. A ‘narrative battle’ has been instrumentalised as a weapon of war, as the “use of language, and the politicisation of victimhood, have been used as two mutually reinforcing components of Israeli propaganda”.37 Not only do Israeli officials, such as the Prime Minister and the President, deploy dehumanising language when referring to Palestinians, journals across the world continue these vilification narratives in the language used to describe Israelis and Palestinians.38 39 This (self-)censorship of language has aided in the legitimisation of the perpetrations of atrocities, including genocide.40

ARTICLE ON International Relations
Propaganda vs. Truth: Israeli Propaganda and Palestinian Demonisation
Read more

Additionally, 69% of European journalists reported that they have been subjected to interference in the form of psychological and/or physical violence.41 These actions constitute censorship, but also exacerbate self-censorship due to the experience of fear. Additionally, advertisers exercise economic pressure on media in Europe and influence, or censor, information.42 However, the main threat to media freedom on this continent are politicians43, who attack journalists through threats and lawsuits.44 Additionally, they have been reported to belittle, vilify, and demonise journalists, often singling out women or minority journalists, as well as encouraging their supporters to distrust the news.45 Censorship is further exacerbated by SLAPPs, fabricated and abusive legal actions aimed at silencing journalists, which have been documented in 41 European countries.46 CASE records over 150 SLAPPs annually across Europe, although they expect to be underreporting.47 Italy (26), Romania (15), Serbia (10), and Turkey (10) had the largest number of SLAPPs filed in 2023. Between 2010 and 2023 businesses or a businessperson filed the most SLAPPs (449), while politicians came in second (300).

European journalists also face the threat of spyware being deployed against them, such as Pegasus, which was designed by an Israeli cybersecurity first tested on Palestinians under occupation48 and has been described as “the most powerful piece of spyware ever developed”49 and Predator, which was created by a North Macedonian company.50 The Safety of Journalists Platform reported that 200 journalists around the world have been targeted by spyware.51 Journalists in at least 13 European countries having been surveilled.52 53 54 55 56 The European Parliament Committee of Inquiry to investigate the use of Pegasus and equivalent surveillance spyware (PEGA) has indicated that Member States are bypassing legal safeguards to surveil journalists.57 Current legal protections, such as the European Media Freedom Act (EMFA), signed in December 2023, are thus rendered entirely ineffective.58

Measures in place

The Geneva Conventions are international treaties that establish legal standards for humanitarian treatment in times of war, binding for Member States of the United Nations (UN) and all parties to armed conflict. Under these conventions all parties to armed conflicts have an obligation to protect journalists. Thus, the murder of a journalist during a conflict constitutes a war crime. Four additional resolutions have been added to the Geneva Conventions specifically for the protection of journalists.59 60 61 62Despite the existence of the Conventions and its additional resolutions, we have just lived through the deadliest period for journalists, calling into question the effectiveness of the Geneva Conventions.

Overview of Geneva Convention Clauses Relating to Journalists
Protection of journalists in war zones
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Furthermore, a platitude of professional initiatives have been launched by NGOs in relation to the safeguarding of journalists in conflict zones. RSF drew up a declaration on the safety of journalists in situations involving armed conflicts in 2003, proposing improvements to the current legal framework.63 They have also launched initiatives, such as a free SOS hotline64, financial aid65, bulletproof vests and helmets66, training for reporters going to war zones67, and a Safety Guide For Journalists68. The International Committee of the Red Cross has been operating a hotline for journalists since 1985, and trains journalists in international humanitarian law.69 The IFJ gathers and publishes data about attacks on journalists and freedom of the press, as well as launches projects and campaigns to tackle injustices in the field.70 Furthermore, the IPI drafted the International Declaration on the Protection of Journalists, summarising international principles and highlighting steps and remedies that media organisations and journalists should consider to protect journalists on dangerous assignments and in hostile environments.71

In Europe, the Journalists Matter: Council of Europe Campaign for the Safety of Journalists aims to promote the development of corresponding campaigns at the national level and to change the situation effectively and significantly in practice. Furthermore, it encourages the adoption of a national Action Plan for the Safety of Journalists in all 46 Member States.72 However, 2 years into the 5-year-long campaign, 12 EU Member States have still not activated the Journalists Matter campaign nationally, and so far, only the United Kingdom73, Sweden74, and Ukraine75 have implemented a National Action Plan. Additionally, the European Commission funds the European Centre for Press & Media Freedom, which hosts Mapping Media Freedom, a platform that documents media freedom violations and provides legal support, public advocacy, and information to protect journalists, as well as the Safety of Journalists Platform, which publishes an annual report on the state of journalism in Europe.

In 2024, two pieces of EU legislation entered into force to ensure greater protection of journalists.76 First, the new EU rules to protect against SLAPPs provide journalists and defenders with tools to fight back against abusive court proceedings.77 The legislation equips courts to deal with abusive litigation and deters people from potentially deploying SLAPPs. Someone targeted with a SLAPP can request for the case to be dismissed early and those who brought a SLAPP to court can be prosecuted, face penalties, and ordered to bear the financial costs of the proceedings. Additionally, the European Media Freedom Act (EMFA) entered into force, which is supposed to protect media pluralism and independence. It aims to protect editorial independence, ensure the independent functioning of public service media, enhance transparency of media ownership, and safeguard media against unjustified online content removal by Very Large Online Platforms (VLOPs). Additionally, it claims to tackle the use of spyware against journalists. However, the PEGA Committee has indicated that the EMFA insufficiently protects journalists from the deployment of Pegasus and Predator78 as Member States are managing to bypass this legislation.

The ICC could be instrumental in changing the current landscape of impunity regarding the prosecution of journalist murderers and 85% of journalist deaths going unpunished.79 As countries fail to prosecute their own citizens for murdering journalists, the independent court could fill a much needed judicial gap. However, RSF is still waiting on hearings for cases filed in 2018 against the murder of Palestinian journalists by Israel.80 Additionally, the IFJ has called upon the EU to demand that the ICC investigate the killing of journalists in Palestine, which the EU has not yet done.81 An ICC ruling would set a precedent for war crimes in relation to journalists and would aid bringing people worldwide to justice. As four journalists were killed last year in Ukraine82 and there are currently 24 active cases of impunity for murder in Europe83, an ICC ruling could be monumental, not only for conflict zones, but for Europe as a whole.

The European Court of Human Rights has seen a number of cases regarding fallacies in custody, detention, and imprisonment of journalists.84 The majority of the cases the Court has ruled on, all but four, are concerning Turkey. The majority of alerts recorded by Mapping Media Freedom are, however, not brought in front of the European Court of Human Rights.

Outlook

The current journalistic landscape looks atrocious for journalists in Europe and across the world. Although the CoE, the European Commission, and the European Parliament are actively trying to improve the situation, we have just lived through the most deadly period for journalists on record. Current legislation regarding SLAPPs, spyware, and the protection of journalists during wartime are all falling short. As politicians are the main threat to journalists in Europe, a lack of action could be stemming from their unwillingness to acknowledge their own role in the issue. Additionally, reporting on complicated issues such as genocides and wars make censorship and crimes against humanity sensitive topics for politicians, journalists, and the general population alike. However, the protection of journalists is a pertinent and urgent matter that needs to be tackled as holistically as possible. How can we ensure that Member States can no longer bypass legislation to deploy spyware on journalists? How can we limit the influence of politicians and economic actors on journalists? How can we reduce the amount of imprisonments and killings of journalists, and hold those responsible accountable?

FOOTNOTES

  1.  Committee to Protect Journalists (2025). Journalist casualties in the Israel-Gaza war. Link ↩︎
  2.  UNESCO (2024). 85% of journalist killings remain unpunished worldwide (UNESCO report). Link ↩︎
  3.  Reporters Without Borders (2024). 2024 ROUND-UP: Journalists killed, detained, held hostage and missing. Link ↩︎
  4.  CASE (2024). SLAPPs Report 2024: SLAPPs in Europe: Mapping trends and Cases. Link ↩︎
  5.  European Partnership for Democracy (2023). Open letter to Members of the European Parliament Calling for the Absolute Prohibition of Spyware Against Journalists. Link ↩︎
  6.  Tamara Tamimi and Daniela Suárez Vargas (2024). Propaganda vs. Truth: Israeli Propaganda and Palestinian Demonisation. E-INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. Link ↩︎
  7.  UNESCO Threats to freedom of press: Violence, disinformation & censorship. Link ↩︎
  8.  Reporters Without Borders (2024). 2024 ROUND-UP: Journalists killed, detained, held hostage and missing. Link ↩︎
  9.  Reporters Without Borders (2024). 2024 ROUND-UP: Journalists killed, detained, held hostage and missing. Link ↩︎
  10.  Reporters Without Borders (2024). 2024 ROUND-UP: Journalists killed, detained, held hostage and missing. Link ↩︎
  11.  Amnesty International (2024). Amnesty International investigation concludes Israel is committing genocide against Palestinians in Gaza. Link ↩︎
  12.  Committee to Protect Journalists (2025). Journalist casualties in the Israel-Gaza war. Link ↩︎
  13.  United Nations (2024). Gaza: UN experts condemn killing and silencing of journalists. Link ↩︎
  14.  Henley (2024). Media freedom ‘perilously close to breaking point’ in several EU countries. The Guardian. Link ↩︎
  15.  European Court of Human Rights (2024). Contributions to public debate: Journalists and other actors. Link ↩︎
  16.  Committee to Protect Journalists (2025). Journalist casualties in the Israel-Gaza war. Link ↩︎
  17.  McCready, Gadzo, Jamal, Quillen, Harb, Marsi, and Kestler-D’Amours (2025). Updates: Israel and Hamas agree Gaza ceasefire deal to halt 15-month war. Al Jazeera. Link ↩︎
  18.  Committee to Protect Journalists (2025). Journalist casualties in the Israel-Gaza war. Link ↩︎
  19.  Reporters Without Borders (2025). Gaza ceasefire: RSF calls for open borders for journalists and an end to impunity for Israel’s war crimes. Link ↩︎
  20.  Reporters Without Borders (2022). RSF Resource for Journalists’ Safety. Link ↩︎
  21.  UNESCO (2020). 9 out of 10 killings of journalists remain unsolved, said UNESCO ahead of International Day to End Impunity for Crimes against Journalists. Link ↩︎
  22.  UNESCO (2024). 85% of journalist killings remain unpunished worldwide (UNESCO report). Link ↩︎
  23.  Liam Scott (2024). Haiti, Israel ranked worst for securing justice in journalist killings. VOA. Link ↩︎
  24.  Reporters without Borders (2024). Gaza: RSF files its fourth complaint in a year with the ICC for Israel’s war crimes against journalists. Link ↩︎
  25.  Reporters without Borders (2023). RSF files complaint with ICC for war crimes against journalists in Palestine and Israel. Link ↩︎
  26.  Reporters without Borders (2024). RSF secures inclusion of crimes against journalists in ICC investigation into Palestine. Link ↩︎
  27.  Reporters without Borders (2024). One year in Gaza: how Israel orchestrated a media blackout on a region at war. Link ↩︎
  28.  International Federation of Journalists (2024). 122 journalists and media workers killed in 2024, says the IFJ. Link ↩︎
  29.  Tamara Tamimi and Daniela Suárez Vargas (2024). Propaganda vs. Truth: Israeli Propaganda and Palestinian Demonisation. E-INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. Link
     International Federation of Journalists (2024). 122 journalists and media workers killed in 2024, says the IFJ. Link ↩︎
  30.  Safety of Journalists Platform (2025). Platform to promote the protection of journalism and safety of journalists. Link ↩︎
  31.  Safety of Journalists Platform (2024). Custody, Detention, and Imprisonment of Journalists. Link ↩︎
  32.  European Centre for Press and Media Freedom (2023). Annual Report 2023. Link ↩︎
  33.  Reporters without Borders (2024). One year in Gaza: how Israel orchestrated a media blackout on a region at war. Link ↩︎
  34.  Reporters Without Borders (2025). Gaza ceasefire: RSF calls for open borders for journalists and an end to impunity for Israel’s war crimes. Link ↩︎
  35.  Reporters Without Borders (2025). RSF’s 2024 Round-up: journalism suffers exorbitant human cost due to conflicts and repressive regimes. Link ↩︎
  36.  Reporters Without Borders (2025). Gaza ceasefire: RSF calls for open borders for journalists and an end to impunity for Israel’s war crimes. Link ↩︎
  37.  Tamara Tamimi and Daniela Suárez Vargas (2024). Propaganda vs. Truth: Israeli Propaganda and Palestinian Demonisation. E-INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. Link ↩︎
  38.  Tamara Tamimi and Daniela Suárez Vargas (2024). Propaganda vs. Truth: Israeli Propaganda and Palestinian Demonisation. E-INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. Link ↩︎
  39.  Faisal Hanif (2024). Media Bias Gaza 2023-24. Centre for Media Monitoring. Link ↩︎
  40.  Tamara Tamimi and Daniela Suárez Vargas (2024). Propaganda vs. Truth: Israeli Propaganda and Palestinian Demonisation. E-INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. Link ↩︎
  41.  Psychological and physical violence is understood to be humiliation, belittlement, intimidation by the police or interest groups, surveillance, threats, slandering, assault, robbery, confiscation/destruction of property, smear campaigns, and sexual harassment in the study. ↩︎
  42.  Marilyn Clark and Anna Grech (2017). JOURNALISTS UNDER PRESSURE: Unwarranted interference, fear and self-censorship in Europe. Link ↩︎
  43.  Alice Taylor-Braçe (2024). European media under attack from politicians, Reporters Without Borders sounds the alarm. Euractiv. Link ↩︎
  44.  Prof. Rasmus Kleis Nielsen (2024). The worst threats to journalism come from politicians. The best defence against them is serving the public. The Reuters Institute. Link ↩︎
  45.  Mapping Media Freedom (2018). Demonising the media: Threats to journalists in Europe. Link ↩︎
  46.  CASE (2024). SLAPPs Report 2024: SLAPPs in Europe: Mapping trends and Cases. Link ↩︎
  47. CASE (2024). SLAPPs Report 2024: SLAPPs in Europe: Mapping trends and Cases. Link ↩︎
  48.  Antony Loewenstein (2023). Israel’s arms and spyware: Used on Palestinians, sold to the world. Middle East Eye. Link ↩︎
  49.  Davind Pegg and Sam Cutler (2021). What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones?. The Guardian. Link ↩︎
  50.  Recorded Future (2024). Predator Spyware Infrastructure Returns Following Exposure and Sanctions. Insikt Group. Link ↩︎
  51. Safety of Journalists Platform (2024). Press Freedom in Europe: Time to Turn the Tide: Annual assessment of press freedom in Europe. Link ↩︎
  52. Safety of Journalists Platform (2024). Press Freedom in Europe: Time to Turn the Tide: Annual assessment of press freedom in Europe. Link ↩︎
  53.  International Press Institute (2024). IPI demands end to use of spyware against journalists in Europe. Link ↩︎
  54.  International Press Institute (2024). New IPI report examines spyware surveillance and the battle for accountability in European journalism. Link ↩︎
  55.  Milica Stojanovic (2023). Surveillance States: Monitoring of Journalists Goes Unchecked in Central, South-East Europe. Balkan Insight. Link ↩︎
  56.  Hamdi Firat Buyuk (2024). Stop Illegal Use of Spyware Against Journalists: Council of Europe Report. Balkan Insight. Link ↩︎
  57.  European Partnership for Democracy (2023). Open letter to Members of the European Parliament Calling for the Absolute Prohibition of Spyware Against Journalists. Link ↩︎
  58.  European Digital Rights (2024). Challenges ahead: European Media Freedom Act falls short in safeguarding journalists and EU fundamental values. Link ↩︎
  59.  UNESCO. Director-General’s Report on the Safety of Journalists and the Danger of Impunity. Link ↩︎
  60.  United Nations (2006). Resolution 1738 (2006) / adopted by the Security Council at its 5613th meeting, on 23 December 2006. Link ↩︎
  61.  Inter-Agency Standing Committee (2007). Medellin Declaration Securing the Safety of Journalists and Combating Impunity (UNESCO). Link ↩︎
  62.  UNESCO (2010). The Safety of journalists and the danger of impunity: report by the Director General to the Intergovernmental Council of the IPDC. Link ↩︎
  63.  Reporters Without Borders (2022). RSF Resource for Journalists’ Safety. Link ↩︎
  64.  Reporters Without Borders. SAFETY GUIDE FOR JOURNALISTS A handbook for reporters in high-risk environments. Link ↩︎
  65.  Reporters Without Borders. SAFETY GUIDE FOR JOURNALISTS A handbook for reporters in high-risk environments. Link ↩︎
  66.  Reporters Without Borders (2011). Safety resources for journalists travelling abroad. Link ↩︎
  67.  Reporters Without Borders (2022). RSF offers scholarships for digital journalists working in war zones and crisis areas. Link ↩︎
  68.  Reporters Without Borders. SAFETY GUIDE FOR JOURNALISTS A handbook for reporters in high-risk environments. Link ↩︎
  69.  International Committee Red Cross (2017). IN HARM’S WAY — WHO CAN ASSIST YOU? Link ↩︎
  70.  International Federation of Journalists. Actions. Link ↩︎
  71.  International Press Institute (2013). International Declaration on the Protection of Journalists. Link ↩︎
  72.  International Federation of Journalists (2022). National Action Plan for the Safety of Journalists in Somalia. Link ↩︎
  73.  European Parliamentary Research Service (2022). Protection of journalists in the European Union. Link ↩︎
  74.  European Parliamentary Research Service (2022). Protection of journalists in the European Union. Link ↩︎
  75.  Council of Europe Portal (2024). Ukraine adopts National Action Plan to protect the safety of journalists. Link ↩︎
  76.  European Commission (2024). Protecting journalists and promoting media freedom: New rules enter into force. Link ↩︎
  77.  European Commission (2024). New EU rules to protect against strategic lawsuits against public participation enter into force. Link ↩︎
  78.  European Partnership for Democracy (2023). Open letter to Members of the European Parliament Calling for the Absolute Prohibition of Spyware Against Journalists. Link ↩︎
  79.  UNESCO (2024). 85% of journalist killings remain unpunished worldwide (UNESCO report). Link ↩︎
  80.  Reporters without Borders (2024). One year in Gaza: how Israel orchestrated a media blackout on a region at war. Link ↩︎
  81.  International Federation of Journalists (2023). EU: Europe must demand that the ICC investigate the killings of journalists. Link ↩︎
  82.  International Federation of Journalists (2024). 122 journalists and media workers killed in 2024, says the IFJ. Link ↩︎
  83.  Safety of Journalists Platform (2025). Platform to promote the protection of journalism and safety of journalists. Link ↩︎
  84.  Safety of Journalists Platform (2024). Custody, Detention, and Imprisonment of Journalists. Link ↩︎